CHAPTER 2 The Militiamen

Few men doubted that War would come. The decision of whether to serve the Union or one’s native state was a much more difficult choice to make in 1860 than it might be in 1960.
Taking “the steam cars,” the railroad, from one capital to another, was not a certain method of travel throughout the whole settled East. When Jackson’s VMI boys went from Lexington to Harpers Ferry and Charleston during the John Brown incident, they traveled by wagon and foot to Staunton, west of Rockfish Creek Gap, and then were able to entrain for the Harpers Ferry. Not even in so settled and prosperous a state as the Old Dominion was there anything like a complete network of railroads between market towns and cities. In the North the situation was somewhat better, but many changes of gauge from one company’s line of tracks to another reduced the pleasures of travel. Express men were constantly on the go, and barge men or other members of the water commerce of the nation —canal boatmen, sailors, post coach drivers—were on the go. But the average man was bom, lived, and died, without seeing beyond the hills that ringed his farm valley. Such close attachment to one geographical spot was shared by families and towns so that in the recruiting Johnny Reb and Billy Yank set out to see the world all right, but usually in company with dozens of other boys with whom they had grown up and had known all their lives. Only after the fighting got hot and replacements came in, draftees from other regions, did the companies or regiments assume a more cosmopolitan air. Yet companies continued to identify themselves with certain regions and though the regions might be larger now, as from “Illinois,” instead of “Chicago,” yet the provincial character of national life was preserved.

State Loyalties

It was this easy identification with a certain region in the predominantly agricultural ante-bellum nation that made the choice of State or Union so painful, yet so logical, to so many. Governmentally, the federated states were considered to be sovereign, each and every one; the Constitution of the federation which all named The United States of America specifically reserved to the several States a great many matters of administration within their own borders. Along with administration, went defense. Indians in the East were generally pacified, but in Florida a state of War existed between the Seminoles and the United States until the 1950’s, when the first peace treaty was signed. In the West, the fashion of bearing arms was commonplace, for defense against the local savages and also against the savage elements of Eastern society which had located on the westWard fringe of the nation. In the general absence of organized police forces before 1850, the citizen owed a duty to his state to come to the aid of his fellows during time of riot or civil insurrection. The John Brown attack on the arsenal was a civil insurrection; numerous were the militia companies from Virginia and nearby Maryland which answered the call and sent troops. Each state also recognized its allegiance to its fellow states in time of War. While Warfare between individual states, as between, say, New York and Connecticut, had been renounced as a means of settling differences, in the Federal compact called The Constitution, the need to defend the country as a whole produced a strong emphasis on the militia system.

Origin of the Militia System

In later years it has been the fashion to discuss the value of a militia system, stronger state defense forces, in the United States, and point to the economy of little Switzerland’s military establishment in justification of the idea. Curiously, a recent (1955) mimeographed paper distributed by the Swiss Embassy on the subject of the Swiss Army, in answer to so many questions from Americans, gives George Washington great credit for originating this idea. But to neither Washington nor the current generation of Swiss belongs the credit; instead, it belongs to an unsung Colonel Martin who in 1745 published a little tome “A Plan for Establishing and Disciplining a National Militia in Great Britain, Ire- land, and in all the British Dominions of America.” This book sells for very little in the United States today to bibliophiles; in England they cherish it as valued at some 35 pounds, $100. But Colonel Martin set forth clearly the ideas and the requirements that produced, in the United States, what the Swiss describe as a tra- ditionally American system, a national militia. Oddly,

Militiamen delighted in special equipment styled for their own issue. Brass-trimmed US Ml855 Rifle was advocated for them because of similarity to French Zouave-issued Minie rifles. Sidearms were also individualized: Colt’s M1855 .31 pocket model (top) has stock carved with head of helmeted dragoon

.Colonel Martin gives due credit to the Swiss in his preRevolutionary book. The point is not who “invented” the idea, but the implementation, and the implements, which accompanied its fruition in the United States by 1860.
The militia system served important needs in both North and South, though to some extent it is more closely identified with regions of relatively great personal wealth. Hence, while New York and Connecticut boasted important organizations, and the militia of Boston could date their origins in the Revolution, it was in the South that militia flourished as a part of society. In the North, however, there was no militia in being; as, for example, in June of 1863 when Pennsylvania was invaded. Only New York was able to send hastily formed bodies of state militia to Harrisburg.
Workingmen worked hard; farmers’ hours were, over the nation, from dawn until dusk. Factories were installing gas lights to lengthen productivity during the winter days. Farmers had to work constantly to get crops in, or to plant, or to carry on the hundred and one affairs of agriculture. If the farmer was rich and owned slaves, so much the worse for him; so much greater the toil. Managerial duties, accounting, planning for shipments, importing the manufactured necessities, took time into the night, long after the field hands were asleep.

Military Training in the South

Though the modern idea seems to be that the Old South was just one long round of fancy balls, common sense if nothing else will inform you that the huge plantation houses now thought of as “typical Southern mansions” were not built by ne’er-do-wells and laggards. Without TV to waste the hours there was still no problem for the energetic of what to do with one’s leisure time.
Yet defense of the State was also a social necessity. Supporting full-time military organizations was both costly and unnecessary, for a great many of the whites were organized into companies for local defense. The fear of an insurrection of slaves as the American-born plantation hands got book learning and religion in- spired some of the drilling and military exercising. The threat of South Carolina’s secession in the 1830’s caused other units to spring up, for preparedness. Border troubles with Canada, in the 1840’s prompted other units to come into being. And the gala social life of a military ball with its costumed pageantry, and the strains of a military band, caused the ladies to give their blessings to these schoolboy soldiering activities of their husbands and swains. Little did they realize that the same downy-cheeked lads they giggled over, in excruciatingly painful, high stiff collars and befrogged gray jackets, would prove to be some of the best fighting men the world had ever seen.

German-American Militia Rifles

Along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Rivers, the militia movement took on a distinct color. Made up of men who had fled their native German states to avoid

Colt’s New Model Pocket model of Navy caliber (1862) has grips bearing tassel-capped head of Gari- baldi, whose exploits in Italy in- spired dress of red-shirt militia.

Sword bayonet-fitted Swiss military rifles used for shooting matches according to Army Regulations, had some influence and limited use on Ohio-Mississippi river line by Alpine rifle clubs.

impressment into service, paradoxically many good German-Americans now flocked to join a local militia company. The uniforms were a badge of honor, and the weekly get-togethers fitted in perfectly with their old- time schuetzenfest activities.
Special military target rifles were crafted by some of the gunsmiths of Cincinnati, or up in Milwaukee where other large German groups lived, to suit the needs of these dandy companies. A typical Schuetzen militia rifle will have the plain finish associated with the standard “plain” American or Kentucky rifle; sometimes backaction lock, percussion. Drop to the stock will be pronounced and the butt will be pronged in the form we now call “Swiss.”
While European military target rifles are often round barreled, the octagon form seems to predominate among the few Ohio rifles examined. At the muzzle either a bayonet stud, or socket a la Swiss, or round-turned muzzle for socket bayonet, indicates the martial nature of the piece. Colonel Martin urged that military meet- ings be held after church services Sunday. Among those militia groups who adhered to this, grand picnics were the rule, with drills and maneuvers often crisply exe- cuted to the tone of commands barked by a local man who often as not had a distinguished War record in 1812 or 1848. Among the German-Swiss shooting societies who took on uniforms in the 1850’s, prize shooting offhand at 200 meters, at the 25-ring target, attracted attention in the newspapers and afforded needed weekend relaxation as the golden beer foamed from the kegs.

Putnam Phalanx

In Connecticut, one well known militia association was formed as an honor guard for a special occasion but became preserved through War and peace to survive to this day. It is the Putnam Phalanx, named after old Israel Putnam, famous general of the Revolution.
Like other outfits, it centered on guarding the governor though in this instance it was a favored recent governor to be guarded. Thomas Seymour, Connecticut Governor in 1850-52, had been envoy to the Court of the Czar at St. Petersburg and in 1857 was scheduled to return home. So popular was he among some of the newer citizens, they wanted to do him honor.
The Putnam Phalanx was the answer. Dressed in Continental uniforms, they escorted the envoy’s carriage across the green below the capitol, through a triumphal arch which they had caused to be erected in his honor and which stands today across a broad footpath over the green.

French Influence

Typical of the organization and service of a militia regiment was the record of New York’s 9th Regiment, Volunteers, known after the name of their colonel as “Hawkins’ Zouaves.” Their uniform and organization were inspired by the regiments of French riflemen raised for service against the Arabs in North Africa in the 1840’s. Many elite troops in the Civil War affected Zouave dress; Ellsworth’s Zouaves of Chicago were among the first so raised.
France had abandoned the use of rifled military small arms during their Revolution. A short grooved-bore piece was made at the Versailles factory under direction of Nicolas Noel Boutet, the “carabine de Versailles.” Issued to special troops and to soldiers trained to spread out in the front rank or protect the flank of regiments, as skirmishers, its issue ceased by the end of the War when the levee en masse had raised huge bodies of troops under Napoleon to be equipped with the com- mon smoothbore musket.
By the 1830’s, especially in the United States, sporting gun experiments included the development of elongated projectiles for hunting and target use. But these were not generally in use. France, meanwhile, had embarked upon a venture that required firepower accurately delivered at long range: the conquest of North Africa, in Algiers.
The War with Algiers began in 1830. The African tribes, notable among which were the Kabyles, used lance and swords and long, long, long barreled guns.

The Snaphaunce

Some flintlocks were in use but the majority were of a lock form long since obsolete in Europe, the Spanish-Dutch form of snaphaunce. Variously spelled snapharmce and schnapphaans, this lock form employed the striking action of flint in the jaws of a moving cock, against the rocking plate of a flintlock known as battery (because it battered the sparks from the flint) or frizzen (modern, corrupt). The pan cover was not in one piece with the battery as in the flintlock that superseded it, but was a separate movable slide that had to be pushed back to uncover the priming powder in the pan. Some locks accomplished this mechanically; with others, it was necessary to manually slide the pan cover back before firing. The design spread throughout the Spanish-Dutch trading area, even up to Scotland, and there on the ends of the trade routes, it froze for several centuries. As late as the end of the 19th cen- tury, snaphaunce guns of this same description were in production in Liege, Belgium, for trade with the “colonies.”
The Kabyles made good use of these guns. Their barrels were sometimes as much as five feet in length; their bores were relatively small, about .50-inch to .75-inch, and the barrel wall was fairly thin. The type of powder used was a fine mealed powder, without much strength, and while lucky sheiks might have owned bullet moulds, more often than not their guns were filled with small shot rendered from a lump of lead hammered flat and cut into cubes with a knife. For wildfowling these weapons were doubtless effective, and against the French when loaded with solid shot they proved devastating. Rarely does any specimen of these ancient guns survive today in good enough condition for the modem shooting researcher to want to try them out. But the record is quite clear: the Arabs with their Long Toms outranged and outshot the best musketeers of France, and the War in Algeria bogged down until rifles capable of shooting more accurately at long range were procured for the French. These first rifles, issued to the Chasseurs d’Orleans, were of the System Delvigne.

The System Delvigne

In 1826 Captain Delvigne proposed a plan which was a variation of the plain round ball, in a rifled bore. After the ball had been pushed to the bottom on top of the powder, it was struck a smart blow or two to upset it into the rifling. Actually, little more than enough upsetting to cause friction between the ball and the bore surface was required. The combustion of gun- powder is at such a rapid rate when confined that its effect upon lead is that of a shock or blow, and if the Delvigne ball was held in place, the firing of the charge would make it upset enough to fill the grooves and gain force and direction as it went on its way.
What was new with Delvigne was his introduction of a conical bullet, the side of which was cylindrical, and the base flat. Early writers speak of this form of bullet, so commonplace nowadays, as “somewhat resembling Sir Isaac Newton’s ‘solid of least resistance.’ ”
Following the Delvigne carbine, actually a short rifle for the use of light infantrymen, the Chasseurs received an improved arm with the Thouvenin breech a tige. The tige of Colonel Thouvenin was a rod set into the inside of the chamber, usually screwed into the breech plug. The rod controlled the limit to which the bullet could

Unwieldy long-barreled snaphaunce smoothbore guns used by Kabyle tribes in North Africa against French troops out- ranged European muskets. African’s superior shooting forced development of rifles. Butt was placed on breastbone, not on shoulder, when shooting.

be forced, and prevented it from crushing the powder, which fell into the space surrounding the tige. The ramrod with Thouvenin’s rifle had a large head with a body of about 1 inch length to pass inside the barrel and center the bullet correctly along the axis of the bore. Thouvenin’s bullet had a long ogive or front curve, a wide grease groove, and a short base slightly tapered inWard.
The Carabine a tige with Delvigne or Thouvenin conical projectiles was supplied to the Chasseurs d’Af- rique in 1846, and seemed capable of pacifying the Kabyles at long range. But the tige was liable to become bent; hence a new form of bullet was sought that would obviate the difficulties of being under bore size but could still be fired accurately.

Minie Balls

The proposal of Captain Minie seemed the answer. For by this time experiments had shown that the tige was not necessary to upset the bullet, and in Minie’s design the bullet alone was the improvement. His bullet could be used in any rifled bore arm to advantage. Being made smaller than the bore of the piece, it could be dropped down a clean barrel onto the powder almost of its own weight. When the bore became fouled it was still possible to fire a greater number of shots with the Minie ball than with a Delvigne carbine. (See Chap. 4). So successful was this rifle of simple construction, that large issues of these were made to the Chasseurs d’Or- leans to be used at their Practice School at Vincennes.
A new rifle embodying a relatively short barrel, and two bands, with the muzzle fitted for a sword “yatag- han” bayonet, was developed for these crack riflemen. The Carabine des Chasseurs de Vincennes was one of the most accurate rifles of the world in the days of muzzle-loaders, and influenced not only the rifle tactics of the day but the design of at least one U.S. rifle, the “Whitneyville Plymouth” naval rifle designed by Captain, later Admiral, John A. Dahlgren.

Zouaves

For service in Africa these dandy troops, some of whom were recruited from among the hardy French settlers farming in Algiers, adopted distinctive uniforms. Closely modeled after those of the Arab world, the Chasseurs d’Afrique typically wore a short jacket, brocaded or otherwise ornamented; a pill-box or kepi, and baggy trousers flaring at the ankle and gathered in a
voluminously bloused effect above the boots. Short buttoned leggins, spats, short boots, or dandy stockings, completed their uniform.
Many armies viewed the hussars or the dragoons as the elite troops, but the tough fighters of the Chasseurs d’Afrique, the “Zouaves,” had no doubt that they were tops. Even their martial music had its effect on the culture of la Patrie; and into the music of Europe in the 1850’s crept strains of oriental pageantry.
The first Zouaves were Kabyles mustered into the service of France when the Delvigne-equipped riflemen had tamed them a little. They proved good fighters, became expert at reloading the muzzle-loading rifle in the prone position. The characteristic dress became identified with bravery and courage. Under their French officers, disciplined as a part of the French Army, they fought against their fellow tribesmen. In 1837 the Kabyle Zouaves corps was divided into three battalions, and rolled up a distinguished battle record. By this time the native element was being eliminated, and by 1840 the Zouaves were almost 100 percent Europeans, uni- formed as Arabs with French Army improvements.

New York Zouaves

It was these men who inspired the young militiamen of America. Zouave regiments expressing a variety of details in their uniforms but all borrowing from the Arabian bloused pantaloons, were organized. Early in 1860 a group of New Yorkers including Rush C. Hawkins, Barnett, Parisen, Hammil, Li Baire, Matthew J. Graham, and others, proposed to organize a com- pany, uniformed as were these renowned fighters, to be known as “The New York Zouaves.” Committees were formed and the business commenced; on 23 July, 1860 the corps was organized. An address by Rush Hawkins, who was elected colonel and who gave his name to the Regiment as it was later constituted, sets forth some of the spirit and sentiment about these private military units.
“Equality of social feeling should be inculcated to the most unlimited extent,” Hawkins said. “Efficiency and good character should be the only recommendation for preferment... A feeling of brotherhood and friend- liness should be cultivated.” About the gay uniform which the corps adopted, Hawkins said, “We should also like to have each man made to feel that a uniform of glaring colors neither makes a man nor a soldier; but that the conduct, efficiency, and bearing of the wearer must decide whether he is a soldier, who knows what he professes, or a fool, wearing a uniform, not knowing why, except that it panders to his vanity, which is satisfied in exciting the ridicule of the sensible, the wonder of small boys, and the admiration of fools.”

The precise equipment of this dandy but earnest group of part-time soldiers is not known. Article II of their bylaws reads: “The construction of the uniforms, equipments, and arms shall be similar to that of the French Zouaves.” And in case of dispute, Article XI under “Drill-Tactics Adopted” says, “The drill shall be
that of the United States Light Infantry, following as near as possible the exercises and discipline of Hardee, and the bayonet exercise of McClellan, except when these authors come in conflict with the drill of the French Zouaves. Then the latter shall prevail.”

Captain R. H. K. Whiteley at Governors Island offered the Zouaves the services of Sergeant Louis Ben- zoni, described as a “consummate manualist” whose exaggerated posturings served to impress upon the young men the necessity for attention to the details of drill.
There were no regularly elected officers as yet and those who commanded the company one day would take their place in the ranks the next. Squads drilled twice weekly, and companies twice weekly. The group moved from provisional headquarters in New York at the Mercer House to a place on the comer of 4th and Thompson Streets. Opposite was the Washington Pa- rade Ground, and the morning and evening maneuvers of the Zouaves were a pleasant and stimulating amuse- ment to strollers during the summer months.
Unfortunately no record exists of the kind of small arms carried by these men prior to the War. Up to the fall of Sumter they were only playing at being soldiers.
When the bulletin boards of the daily papers about noon of April 15, 1861, announced the President’s call for volunteers, the men asked their leader, Hawkins, to have him offer the Zouaves to the Government. This was done and on May 4, 1861, the regiment was mustered into Federal service, and designated the 9th New York Volunteer Infantry. The history of this regiment (The Ninth Regiment, New York Volunteers, by M. J. Graham) illustrates on its cover one of the Zouaves in full field dress complete with musket. On his head is a natty red Garibaldi cap from which depends a tassel. His hip-length blue jacket is edged in red and on its lapel faces two embroidered bands rise from the bottom ribs to end in a trefoil frog on each shoulder. The bloused blue pantaloons are tucked into white leggings over black shoes, while a “US” initial beltbuckle is backed up by a wide cummerbund or red waist sash. His rifle is, judging from the clear rendering of it in the cover stamping, a U.S. Rifle type 1855-65. Whether it is the Maynard primed 1855 arm or a later type cannot be seen, but the early dates of this company’s service suggest they received Maynard primed 1855 rifle mus- kets. It was after their May federalizing that muskets were issued.
Colonel Hawkins, after being mustered into service, made contracts for all the regiment’s clothing and equipment, except blankets, overcoats, and arms. It is possible that in the Zouaves’ headquarters opposite Washington Parade Ground they only possessed enough rifles—could they have been of the Chasseurs de Vincennes model?—to equip a couple of companies for drill, and these were stored when the regiment went to War, in the interests of using U.S. standard arms, and saving wear and tear on their own.